¿Qué es un grafema?

Posted: 16 Mar 2011 02:31 PM PDT

Un grafema es la mínima unidad distintiva de un sistema de escritura, o sea, el mínimo elemento por el que se pueden distinguir por escrito dos palabras en una lengua. Así, para inventariar los grafemas que intervienen en la escritura de una lengua, lo que tenemos que hacer es ir comparando palabras escritas para descubrir diferencias mínimas que van asociadas a un cambio de significado. Por ejemplo, capa se diferencia de caza, cava, casa, caca, cana, cara, cala, cada, etc., lo que nos indica que son grafemas en la escritura del español.La convención lingüística para indicar que nos estamos refiriendo a un grafema (y no, por ejemplo, a un fonema) consiste en escribir el signo en cuestión entre paréntesis angulares <>, por ejemplo, . Esta convención la hemos utilizado ya en el párrafo anterior y seguiremos haciendo uso de ella durante el resto del artículo
Acabo de mencionar el concepto de fonema, y cualquiera que tenga unas mínimas nociones de lingüística ya se habrá percatado de que el procedimiento para reconocer los grafemas es paralelo al que se emplea para identificar los fonemas de una lengua. De hecho, la noción de grafema surge por analogía con la fonema. Y no acaba aquí el paralelismo. De la misma manera que los fonemas presentan alófonos, que son diferentes posibilidades de realización de un mismo fonema, los grafemas presentan alógrafos, que son variantes de un mismo grafema. Por ejemplo, son alógrafos del grafema las variantes redonda (a), cursiva (a) y negrita (a) con que puede aparecer realizado en un escrito.
Para determinar exactamente el inventario de grafemas propio de la escritura del español hay que resolver varios problemas. El primero es si son grafemas secuencias como rr, qu y, muy especialmente, ch y ll. Para decidir si nos hallamos ante un grafema complejo o una sucesión de grafemas independientes, lo que tenemos que hacer es determinar si la función distintiva corresponde a los dos signos en bloque o a cada uno de ellos individualmente.
Empecemos por los que nunca se han considerado parte del alfabeto español. En el caso del dígrafo rr, una palabra como carro se opone en la lengua escrita a otras como cardo o cargo, por lo que, claramente, estamos ante una secuencia de dos grafemas idénticos. El caso de qu es un poco más complicado porque en nuestra escritura lo normal es que la cu aparezca seguida de la u. No obstante, sí que hay casos, aunque sean periféricos, en los que esta consonante puede resultar distintiva. Por ejemplo, Qatar se opone a catar, datar y matar; e Iraq se opone a Irán. Se me podrá objetar que la Ortografía de 2010 ha jubilado, precisamente, las grafías Qatar e Iraq; pero, aunque normativamente hayan perdido su vigencia, no necesariamente han desaparecido del uso. También podemos encontrar la cu con función distintiva en siglas. Por ejemplo, no es lo mismo el CNQ (Club Náutico de Quilmes) que el CNI (Centro Nacional de Inteligencia). O si nos vamos al terreno de los símbolos alfabetizables, se da una oposición entre q (quintal) y g (gramo). En definitiva, aunque sea de manera marginal o por los pelos, hay que reconocer el carácter digrafemático de la secuencia qu.
Especial atención merecen las secuencias que históricamente se consideraron parte del alfabeto, es decir, ch y ll. También estas se revelan como la simple agregación de dos grafemas: chavo se opone a clavo, y llave se opone a clave. Parece, por tanto, que fueron decisiones coherentes excluirlas del sistema de alfabetización de los diccionarios primero y del alfabeto después.
El siguiente problema que hay que resolver es el del estatus de las mayúsculas. ¿Tienen valor grafemático o son simples alógrafos? Atendiendo a la capacidad distintiva, es fácil constatar que, efectivamente, las mayúsculas pueden entrar en oposición significativa con las minúsculas correspondientes. No es lo mismo Marco (nombre propio de persona) que marco (‘cerco’). No obstante, este valor distintivo está fuertemente restringido porque solo se da en posición inicial de palabra. Habría que admitir, por tanto, que hay oposición entre y , y , etc., pero para añadir a continuación que esta oposición se encuentra por lo general neutralizada y solo se manifiesta bajo circunstancias muy específicas. Esto nos complica la descripción del sistema grafemático porque nos obliga a postular la existencia de archigrafemas que engloban pares de grafemas correspondientes a la mayúscula y la minúscula.
Otro escollo tiene que ver con el papel de los signos diacríticos, es decir, los añadidos que modifican a una letra, como los acentos (á, è, ô), la diéresis (ü), la virgulilla de la eñe (ñ), el háček o gancho (č, ě), etc. Está claro que estos signos tienen valor distintivo. Se crean precisamente con esa intención. En español no es lo mismo termino que terminó, ni cana que caña. ¿Debemos considerar entonces que á, é, í, ó, ú, ü, ñ son grafemas? ¿O son, más bien, grafemas los signos ´ y ~? Independientemente de las bondades y maldades que pueda tener cada solución, hay que indicar que las Academias, en la Ortografía de 2010 no se han inclinado ni por la una ni por la otra. Es más, ni siquiera le han dado un tratamiento unitario a este problema. La solución normativa (que no necesariamente científica) es la siguiente. El acento no se considera grafema. Se introduce para ello una condición adicional: para que un signo sea considerado grafema, este ha de tener carácter secuencial, es decir, aparecer ocupando su propia posición en la cadena de la escritura y no superpuesto a otro para modificarlo. En el caso de la eñe, en cambio, sí que se opta por incorporarla con todas las de la ley al inventario de grafemas y al abecedario sin que se sienta la necesidad de justificar esta decisión.
Los elementos centrales del conjunto de grafemas que utilizamos en nuestra escritura son, sin duda, las letras del alfabeto; pero el juego de grafemas no se agota ni mucho menos con estas. Hay que añadir otros signos de suma importancia, como son los números arábigos (<1, 2, 3, 4>, etc.), así como una serie de signos que encuentran su uso en la notación matemática, lógica, científica, económica, etc., como +, *, >, @, $, &, etc.
El ideal de una escritura alfabética es que se dé una correspondencia biunívoca entre los fonemas de una lengua y los grafemas de su alfabeto, es decir, que a cada fonema le corresponda un grafema y solo uno y que a cada grafema le corresponda un fonema y solo uno. En la práctica se suelen dar desajustes entre fonología y escritura que nos alejan de ese ideal. Por ello, debemos evitar la simplificación de pensar que la escritura es un mero reflejo de la pronunciación o, al revés, que la pronunciación debe amoldarse a lo que marca la escritura.
[Blog de Lengua Española de Alberto Bustos, ¿Qué es un grafema?]

La ortografía como factor de unidad lingüística

Posted: 10 Mar 2011 02:55 PM PST

La ortografía es un poderoso factor de unidad lingüística. De hecho, uno de los objetivos que las Academias afirman perseguir con la Ortografía de la lengua española de 2010 es contribuir a dicha unidad.
El español es una lengua hablada por una ingente comunidad que abarca varios cientos de millones de personas. Como lengua oficial, está presente en cuatro continentes; y, de hecho, está representada en los cinco. No es extrañar, por tanto, que su pronunciación presente un sinfín de variantes. Por ejemplo, unos somos seseantes; otros, ceceantes; y otros, distinguidores. En unas zonas se ha impuesto el yeísmo y en otras todavía pollo se opone a poyo.
Toda esta variación queda recubierta por una ortografía esencialmente unitaria. Este párrafo, sin ir más lejos, sonará muy diferente dependiendo de si lo lee en voz alta alguien de Valladolid, de Sevilla, de Chiclana de la Frontera, de Buenos Aires, de Antofagasta, de La Habana o de Tijuana. La escritura hace abstracción de tales disparidades y unifica las palabras en una grafía común. Esto facilita el entendimiento. Imaginemos, si no, lo que ocurriría si los unos escribieran secesión; los otros, sesesión; y los de más allá, cececión. O si lo que en un pueblo es llorar en el de al lado se convirtiera en yorar y en otro, incluso, en shorar.
La ortografía desempeña, por tanto, una función unificadora frente a las variantes locales. Y esto no es una particularidad nuestra. Es así en cualquiera de las modernas lenguas de cultura. Es más, esta función cobra más relieve aún en casos como el del inglés, donde la variación de unos territorios a otros puede llegar a ser drástica; o en el chino, con variedades lingüísticas o dialectos que no siempre son mutuamente comprensibles de palabra, pero sí por escrito. Esto fue así, incluso, en el latín arromanzado de la época medieval, que era latín por fuera y lengua vulgar por dentro: sobre el papel, para las personas cultas (o sea, quienes sabían leer y escribir), era latín; pero al leerlo en voz alta se transformaba por arte de birlibirloque en la lengua que hablaban todos corrientemente y que se iría convirtiendo poco a poco en castellano, normando o toscano.
Si la escritura garantiza la unidad en la dimensión espacial, también lo hace en la temporal. La ortografía es, por naturaleza, conservadora, por lo que no refleja inmediatamente las alteraciones en la pronunciación que se van acumulando con el tiempo. Nuestro actual sistema de reglas se basa en la ortografía académica de 1815. Se eliminaron entonces algunos de los desajustes entre escritura y pronunciación que venía arrastrando la tradición ortográfica castellana como resultado de cambios fonológicos o de inconsistencias históricas. Así, por ejemplo, la equis podía representar el fonema /j/ como en exemplo y la secuencia de fonemas /ks/, como en éxodo. Al eliminar esta y otras irregularidades, se facilitó el aprendizaje de la lectura y la escritura. Pero nada es gratis, como podemos comprobar cuando cae en nuestras manos un libro antiguo: hay una barrera ortográfica que dificulta el acceso.
Del mismo modo, si mañana nos decidiéramos a acometer una reforma que acercara la escritura y la fonología, todos los documentos impresos y electrónicos que venimos acumulando desde el siglo XIX se tornarían ilegibles para las generaciones que se alfabetizaran con el nuevo sistema. Por eso hay que tentarse muy bien la ropa antes de lanzarse a tales empresas, que suelen generar resistencias de todo tipo entre quienes ya saben leer, que acarrean costes económicos considerables y provocan una ruptura de la tradición cultural.
Pero todo esto es solo una vertiente del problema, que es la que tiene que ver con la unidad interna de la lengua. La ortografía académica es sumamente respetuosa con ella. Y la seguirá respetando de grado o por fuerza. Todos hemos sido testigos del revuelo que se ha armado cuando se han retocado algunos aspectos marginales del sistema de acentuación gráfica, como eliminar la tilde de guion o no tildar la o cuando va entre cifras. Como para plantearse simplificar el uso de ge y jota o, no digamos, eliminar la hache…
Sin embargo, este mimo de la unidad interna deja paso a un furor reformista cuando de lo que se trata es de la otra vertiente de la unidad lingüística, la que podemos denominar unidad externa. Nuestra lengua no ha estado nunca aislada. Se ha ido conformando en el contacto y el intercambio con las lenguas de su entorno geográfico y cultural. No es posible entender lo que es hoy el español sin tener en cuenta que forma parte de una comunidad lingüística y cultural en la que convive dentro de la península ibérica con el gallego, el portugués, el euskera y el catalán; y, pasados los Pirineos, con el francés, el inglés, el alemán o el italiano. Los pueblos que hablan estas lenguas han mantenido y mantienen intensas relaciones lingüísticas, comerciales, políticas, religiosas, artísticas, etc. Por encima de sus diferencias evidentes, comparten una historia, unos valores, una visión del mundo. En América, en África o en Asia, la lengua española ha seguido cultivando y estrechando los lazos con las otras lenguas europeas que, como ella, hicieron el viaje a estos continentes y, además, los ha extendido a las lenguas nativas como el quechua, el aimara o el tagalo que sobrevivieron al encontronazo con los europeos.
Todas estas lenguas comparten una porción considerable de su léxico, que está formada por los denominados internacionalismos. Cualquier hispanohablante estrictamente monolingüe, pero con hábito de lectura, reconocerá sin mayor dificultad un gran número de palabras en un periódico inglés, francés, alemán o danés. No hay que ir a Oxford ni a Cambridge para entender por escrito la palabra inglesa action. Sin embargo, si una reforma ortográfica del inglés la convirtiera mañana en algo así como ækshon, nos ayudarían a pronunciarla, pero la dificultad inicial de acceso al inglés escrito se incrementaría considerablemente.
No es de extrañar por ello que tengan una pésima acogida ocurrencias como la de castellanizar grafías asentadas como la de Qatar. La forma con cu es claramente la que predomina a escala internacional para el nombre de ese país. Al convertirla en Catar, hacemos una dudosa aportación a la facilidad de escritura del castellano al precio de convertirnos en una isla lingüística. Teniendo en cuenta que en el mundo de hoy el acceso a la información se realiza preferentemente a través de Internet, por escrito y no necesariamente en castellano, esa supuesta facilidad se puede convertir en un quebradero de cabeza cada vez que queramos localizar las últimas noticias sobre algún acontecimiento producido en ese país o, simplemente, comprar un billete de avión para visitarlo. Cuando alteramos la grafía de topónimos e internacionalismos, estamos levantando barreras donde no las había.
Además, estas innovaciones académicas tienden a ser de ida y vuelta. Quienes adoptaran en su día la grafía camicace se encontrarán hoy con el paso cambiado porque las Academias han vuelto ya al redil internacional y nuevamente prefieren la forma kamikaze. La castellanización de güisqui tuvo el éxito que el sentido común permitía esperar. Pero nuestros académicos vuelven a la carga en la Ortografía de 2010 (pp. 86-87) y nos proponen que escribamos wiski. Y digo yo: el whisky ¿no sería mejor no tocarlo?
En definitiva, es cierto que la ortografía constituye un factor de unidad lingüística; pero también lo es que esa unidad se da, asimismo, en un conjunto orgánico que rebasa los límites de nuestra comunidad de hablantes y que quizás este sea un valor que también convenga respetar.
¿O no? ¿Tú qué piensas?
[Blog de Lengua Española de Alberto Bustos, La ortografía como factor de unidad lingüística]

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement. 2/2

Interpreters and translators must be fluent in at least two languages. Their educational backgrounds may vary widely, but many need a bachelor's degree. Many also complete job-specific training programs.
Education and training. The educational backgrounds of interpreters and translators vary. Knowing at least two languages is essential. Although it is not necessary to have been raised bilingual to succeed, many interpreters and translators grew up speaking two languages.
In high school, students can prepare for these careers by taking a broad range of courses that include English writing and comprehension, foreign languages, and basic computer proficiency. Other helpful pursuits include spending time abroad, engaging in direct contact with foreign cultures, and reading extensively on a variety of subjects in English and at least one other language.
Beyond high school, there are many educational options. Although a bachelor's degree is often required for jobs, majoring in a language is not always necessary. An educational background in a particular field of study can provide a natural area of subject-matter expertise. However, specialized training in how to do the work is generally required. Formal programs in interpreting and translation are available at colleges nationwide and through nonuniversity training programs, conferences, and courses. Many people who work as conference interpreters or in more technical areas—such as localization, engineering, or finance—have master's degrees, while those working in the community as court or medical interpreters or translators are more likely to complete job-specific training programs.
Other qualifications. Experience is an essential part of a successful career in either interpreting or translation. In fact, many agencies or companies use only the services of people who have worked in the field for 3 to 5 years or who have a degree in translation studies, or both.
A good way for translators to learn firsthand about the profession is to start out working in-house for a translation company; however, such jobs are not very numerous. People seeking to enter interpreter or translator jobs should begin by getting experience whatever way possible—even if it means doing informal or volunteer work.
Volunteer opportunities are available through community organizations, hospitals, and sporting events, such as marathons, that involve international competitors. The American Translators Association works with the Red Cross to provide volunteer interpreters in crisis situations. Any translation can be used as an example for potential clients, even translation done as practice.
Paid or unpaid internships and apprenticeships are other ways for interpreters and translators to get started. Escort interpreting may offer an opportunity for inexperienced candidates to work alongside a more seasoned interpreter. Interpreters might also find it easier to break into areas with particularly high demand for language services, such as court or medical interpreting.
Whatever path of entry they pursue, new interpreters and translators should establish mentoring relationships to build their skills, confidence, and professional network. Mentoring may be formal, such as through a professional association, or informal with a coworker or an acquaintance who has experience as an interpreter or translator. Both the American Translators Association and the Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf offer formal mentoring programs.
Translators working in localization need a solid grasp of the languages to be translated, a thorough understanding of technical concepts and vocabulary, and a high degree of knowledge about the intended target audience or users of the product. Because software often is involved, it is not uncommon for people who work in this area of translation to have a strong background in computer science or to have computer-related work experience.
Self-employed and freelance interpreters and translators need general business skills to successfully manage their finances and careers. They must set prices for their work, bill customers, keep financial records, and market their services to attract new business and build their client base.
Certification and advancement. There is currently no universal form of certification required of interpreters and translators in the United States. However there are a variety of different tests that workers can take to demonstrate proficiency, which may be helpful in gaining employment. For example, the American Translators Association provides certification in 24 language combinations involving English for its members.
Federal courts have certification for Spanish, Navajo, and Haitian Creole interpreters, and many State and municipal courts offer their own forms of certification. The National Association of Judiciary Interpreters and Translators also offers certification for court interpreting.
The U.S. Department of State has a three-test series for prospective interpreters—one test in simple consecutive interpreting (for escort work), another in simultaneous interpreting (for court or seminar work), and a third in conference-level interpreting (for international conferences)—as well as a test for prospective translators. These tests are not considered a credential, but successful completion indicates that a person has a significant level of skill in the field. Additionally, the International Association of Conference Interpreters offers certification for conference interpreters
The National Association of the Deaf and the Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf (RID) jointly offer certification for general sign interpreters. In addition, the registry offers specialty tests in legal interpreting, speech reading, and deaf-to-deaf interpreting—which includes interpreting among deaf speakers with different native languages and from ASL to tactile signing.
Once interpreters and translators have gained sufficient experience, they may then move up to more difficult or prestigious assignments, may seek certification, may be given editorial responsibility, or may eventually manage or start a translation agency.
Many self-employed interpreters and translators start businesses by submitting resumes and samples to many different translation and interpreting agencies and then wait to be contacted when an agency matches their skills with a job. Work is often acquired by word of mouth or through referrals from existing clients.

Employment 

Interpreters and translators held about 50,900 jobs in 2008. However, the actual number of interpreters and translators is probably significantly higher because many work in the occupation only sporadically. Interpreters and translators are employed in a variety of industries, reflecting the diversity of employment options in the field. About 28 percent worked in public and private educational institutions, such as schools, colleges, and universities. About 13 percent worked in healthcare and social assistance, many of whom worked for hospitals. Another 9 percent worked in other areas of government, such as Federal, State, and local courts. Other employers of interpreters and translators include interpreting and translation agencies, publishing companies, telephone companies, and airlines.
About 26 percent of interpreters and translators are self-employed. Many who freelance in the occupation work only part time, relying on other sources of income to supplement earnings from interpreting or translation.

Job Outlook 

Interpreters and translators can expect much faster than average employment growth. Job prospects vary by specialty and language.
Employment change. Employment of interpreters and translators is projected to increase 22 percent over the 2008–18 decade, which is much faster than the average for all occupations. Higher demand for interpreters and translators results directly from the broadening of international ties and the large increases in the number of non-English speaking people in the United States. Both of these trends are expected to continue throughout the projections period, contributing to relatively rapid growth in the number of jobs for interpreters and translators across all industries in the economy.
Demand will remain strong for translators of frequently translated languages, such as Portuguese, French, Italian, German, and Spanish. Demand should also be strong for translators of Arabic and other Middle Eastern languages and for the principal East Asian languages—Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. Demand for American Sign Language interpreters will grow rapidly, driven by the increasing use of video relay services, which allow individuals to conduct video calls using a sign language interpreter over an Internet connection.
Technology has made the work of interpreters and translators easier. However, technology is not likely to have a negative impact on employment of interpreters and translators because such innovations are incapable of producing work comparable with work produced by these professionals.
Job prospects. Urban areas, especially Washington, DC, New York, and cities in California, provide the largest numbers of employment possibilities, especially for interpreters; however, as the immigrant population spreads into more rural areas, jobs in smaller communities will become more widely available.
Job prospects for interpreters and translators vary by specialty and language. For example, interpreters and translators of Spanish should have good job opportunities because of expected increases in the Hispanic population in the United States. Demand is expected to be strong for interpreters and translators specializing in healthcare and law because it is critical that information be fully understood among all parties in these areas. Additionally, there should be demand for specialists in localization, driven by the globalization of business and the expansion of the Internet; however, demand may be dampened somewhat by outsourcing of localization work to other countries. Given the shortage of interpreters and translators meeting the desired skill level of employers, interpreters for the deaf will continue to have favorable employment prospects. On the other hand, competition can be expected for both conference interpreter and literary translator positions because of the small number of job opportunities in these specialties.

Projections Data

Projections data from the National Employment Matrix

Occupational Title	SOC Code	Employment, 2008	Projected Employment, 2018	Change, 2008-18		Detailed Statistics
				Number	Percent
Interpreters and translators	27-3091	50,900	62,200	11,300	22	[PDF]	[XLS]
NOTE: Data in this table are rounded. See the discussion of the employment projections table in the Handbook introductory chapter on Occupational Information Included in the Handbook.

Earnings 

Wage and salary interpreters and translators had median annual wages of $38,850 in May 2008. The middle 50 percent earned between $28,940 and $52,240. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $22,170, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $69,190. Individuals classified as language specialists in the Federal Government earned an average of $79,865 annually in March 2009.
Earnings depend on language, subject matter, skill, experience, education, certification, and type of employer, and salaries of interpreters and translators can vary widely. Interpreters and translators who know languages for which there is a greater demand, or which relatively few people can translate, often have higher earnings, as do those who perform services requiring a high level of skill, such as conference interpreters.
For those who are not salaried, earnings typically fluctuate, depending on the availability of work. Freelance interpreters usually earn an hourly rate, whereas translators who freelance typically earn a rate per word or per hour.

For the latest wage information:

The above wage data are from the Occupational Employment Statistics (OES) survey program, unless otherwise noted. For the latest National, State, and local earnings data, visit the following pages:

interpreters and translators

Related Occupations

Interpreters and translators use their multilingual skills, as do teachers of languages. These include:
Teachers—adult literacy and remedial education
Teachers—kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary
Teachers—postsecondary
Teachers—self-enrichment education
Teachers—special education
Translators prepare texts for publication or dissemination; other workers involved in this process include:
Authors, writers, and editors
Interpreters or translators working in a legal or healthcare environment are required to have a knowledge of terms and concepts that is similar to that of other workers in these fields, such as:
Court reporters
Medical transcriptionists

Sources of Additional Information

Disclaimer:

Links to non-BLS Internet sites are provided for your convenience and do not constitute an endorsement.

Organizations dedicated to these professions can provide valuable advice and guidance to people interested in learning more about interpreting and translation. The language services division of local hospitals or courthouses also may have information about available opportunities.
For general career information, contact:

• American Translators Association, 225 Reinekers Ln., Suite 590, Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.atanet.org

For more detailed information by specialty, contact the association affiliated with the subject area in question. See, for example, the following:

• American Literary Translators Association, University of Texas at Dallas, 800 W. Campbell Rd., Mail Station JO51, Richardson, TX 75080-3021. Internet: http://www.utdallas.edu/alta
• International Medical Interpreters Association, 800 Washington Street, Box 271, Boston, MA 02111-1845. Internet: http://www.imiaweb.org
• Localization Industry Standards Association, Domaine en Prael, CH-1323 Romainmôtier, Switzerland. Internet: http://www.lisa.org
• National Association of Judiciary Interpreters and Translators, 1707 L St. NW., Suite 570, Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.najit.org
• National Council on Interpreting in Health Care, 5505 Connecticut Ave. NW., Suite 119, Washington, DC 20015. Internet: http://www.ncihc.org
• Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf, 333 Commerce St., Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.rid.org

For information about testing to become a contract interpreter or translator with the U.S. State Department, contact:

• U.S. Department of State, Office of Language Services, 2401 E St. NW., SA-1, Room H1400, Washington, DC 20522. Internet: http://languageservices.state.gov

Information on obtaining a position as an interpreter and translator with the Federal Government is available from the Office of Personnel Management through USAJOBS, the Federal Government's official employment information system. This resource for locating and applying for job opportunities can be accessed through the Internet at http://www.usajobs.opm.gov or through an interactive voice response telephone system at (703) 724–1850 or TDD (978) 461–8404. These numbers are not toll free, and charges may result. For advice on how to find and apply for Federal jobs, see the Occupational Outlook Quarterly article “How to get a job in the Federal Government,” online at http://www.bls.gov/opub/ooq/2004/summer/art01.pdf.

O*NET-SOC Code Coverage

Get more information from O*NET—the Occupational Information Network:

O*NET provides comprehensive information on key characteristics of workers and occupations. For information on a specific occupation, select the appropriate link below. For more information on O*NET, visit their homepage.

Interpreters and Translators (27-3091.00)

Suggested citation: Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2010-11 Edition, Interpreters and Translators, on the Internet at http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos175.htm (visited March 10, 2011).

Interpreters and Translators / United States Department of Labor / Statistics Section. (Part 1/2).)

• About 26 percent of interpreters and translators are self-employed; many freelance and work in this occupation only sporadically.
• In addition to needing fluency in at least two languages, many interpreters and translators need a bachelor's degree.
• Employment is expected to grow much faster than average.
• Job prospects vary by specialty and language.

 Nature of the Work

 Interpreters and translators facilitate the cross-cultural communication necessary in today's society by converting one language into another. However, these language specialists do more than simply translate words—they relay concepts and ideas between languages. They must thoroughly understand the subject matter in which they work in order to accurately convey information from one language into another. In addition, they must be sensitive to the cultures associated with their languages of expertise.
Although some people do both, interpreting and translation are different professions. Interpreters deal with spoken words, translators with written words. Each task requires a distinct set of skills and aptitudes, and most people are better suited for one or the other. While interpreters often interpret into and from both languages, translators generally translate only into their native language.
Interpreters convert one spoken language into another—or, in the case of sign-language interpreters, between spoken communication and sign language. Interpreting requires that one pay attention carefully, understand what is communicated in both languages, and express thoughts and ideas clearly. Strong research and analytical skills, mental dexterity, and an exceptional memory also are important.
There are two modes of interpreting: simultaneous, and consecutive. Simultaneous interpreting requires interpreters to listen and speak (or sign) at the same time someone is speaking or signing. Ideally, simultaneous interpreters should be so familiar with a subject that they are able to anticipate the end of the speaker's sentence. Because they need a high degree of concentration, simultaneous interpreters work in pairs, with each interpreting for 20-minute to 30-minute periods. This type of interpreting is required at international conferences and is sometimes used in the courts.
In contrast to the immediacy of simultaneous interpreting, consecutive interpreting begins only after the speaker has verbalized a group of words or sentences. Consecutive interpreters often take notes while listening to the speakers, so they must develop some type of note-taking or shorthand system. This form of interpreting is used most often for person-to-person communication, during which the interpreter is positioned near both parties.
Translators convert written materials from one language into another. They must have excellent writing and analytical ability, and because the translations that they produce must be accurate, they also need good editing skills.
Translating involves more than replacing a word with its equivalent in another language; sentences and ideas must be manipulated to flow with the same coherence as those in the source document so that the translation reads as though it originated in the target language. Translators also must bear in mind any cultural references that may need to be explained to the intended audience, such as colloquialisms, slang, and other expressions that do not translate literally. Some subjects may be more difficult than others to translate because words or passages may have multiple meanings that make several translations possible. Not surprisingly, translated work often goes through multiple revisions before final text is submitted.
Nearly all translation work is done on a computer, and most assignments are received and submitted electronically. This enables translators to work from almost anywhere, and a large percentage of them work from home. The Internet provides advanced research capabilities and valuable language resources, such as specialized dictionaries and glossaries. In some cases, use of computer-assisted translation—including memory tools that provide comparisons of previous translations with current work—helps save time and reduce repetition.
The services of interpreters and translators are needed in a number of subject areas. While these workers may not completely specialize in a particular field or industry, many do focus on one area of expertise. Some of the most common areas are described below; however, interpreters and translators may work in a variety of other areas also, including business, education, social services, and entertainment.
Judiciary interpreters and translators facilitate communication for people with limited English proficiency who find it challenging to communicate in a legal setting. Legal translators must be thoroughly familiar with the language and functions of the U.S. judicial system, as well as other countries' legal systems. Court interpreters work in a variety of legal settings, such as attorney-client meetings, preliminary hearings, arraignments, depositions, and trials. Success as a court interpreter requires an understanding of both legal terminology and colloquial language. In addition to interpreting what is said, court interpreters also may be required to read written documents aloud in a language other than that in which they were written, a task known as sight translation.
Medical interpreters and translator, sometimes referred to as healthcare interpreters and translators, provide language services to healthcare patients with limited English proficiency. Medical interpreters help patients to communicate with doctors, nurses, and other medical staff. Translators working in this specialty primarily convert patient materials and informational brochures issued by hospitals and medical facilities into the desired language. Interpreters in this field need a strong grasp of medical and colloquial terminology in both languages, along with cultural sensitivity to help the patient receive the information.
Sign-language interpreters facilitate communication between people who are deaf or hard of hearing and people who can hear. Sign-language interpreters must be fluent in English and in American Sign Language (ASL), which combines signing, finger spelling, and specific body language. Most sign-language interpreters either interpret, aiding communication between English and ASL, or transliterate, facilitating communication between English and contact signing—a form of signing that uses a more English language-based word order. Some interpreters specialize in oral interpreting for people who are deaf or hard of hearing and lip-read instead of sign. Other specialties include tactile signing, which is interpreting for people who are blind as well as deaf by making manual signs into their hands, using cued speech, and signing exact English.
Conference interpreters work at conferences that have non-English-speaking attendees. The work is often in the field of international business or diplomacy, although conference interpreters can interpret for any organization that works with speakers of foreign languages. Employers prefer high-level interpreters who have the ability to translate from at least two languages into one native language—for example, the ability to interpret from Spanish and French into English. For some positions, such as those with the United Nations, this qualification is mandatory.
Guide or escort interpreters accompany either U.S. visitors abroad or foreign visitors in the United States to ensure that they are able to communicate during their stay. These specialists interpret on a variety of subjects, both on an informal basis and on a professional level. Most of their interpreting is consecutive, and work is generally shared by two interpreters when the assignment requires more than an 8-hour day. Frequent travel, often for days or weeks at a time, is common, and it is an aspect of the job that some find particularly appealing.
Literary translators adapt written literature from one language into another. They may translate any number of documents, including journal articles, books, poetry, and short stories. Literary translation is related to creative writing; literary translators must create a new text in the target language that reproduces the content and style of the original. Whenever possible, literary translators work closely with authors to best capture their intended meanings and literary characteristics.
Localization translators completely adapt a product or service for use in a different language and culture. The goal of these specialists is to make it appear as though a product originated in the country where it will be sold and supported. At its earlier stages, this work dealt primarily with software localization, but the specialty has expanded to include the adaptation of Internet sites, marketing, publications, and products and services in manufacturing and other business sectors.
Work environment. Interpreters work in a wide variety of settings, such as schools, hospitals, courtrooms, and conference centers. Translators usually work alone, and they must frequently perform under pressure of deadlines and tight schedules. Technology allows translators to work from almost anywhere, and many choose to work from home.
Because many interpreters and translators freelance, their schedules often vary, with periods of limited work interspersed with periods requiring long, irregular hours. For those who freelance, a significant amount of time must be dedicated to looking for jobs. Interpreters who work over the telephone or through videoconferencing generally work in call centers in urban areas and keep to a standard 5-day, 40-hour workweek.

Interpreters and translators must have a thorough understanding of various languages.

Time management by the Freelance Translator

Practical rules to schedule your workday and activities by Maria Antonietta Ricagno

s a freelance translator, are you 'free' to work as you please, with no rules? Of course, not. The widespread but wrong assumption according to which freelancers enjoy more freedom compared to employees is a misunderstanding. Working as a freelancer implies a strong sense of responsibility and requires strict discipline: it does not, nor should mean that you should have no timetables to follow, and most freelancers know that from their own experience. Freelance translators should get used to thinking about themselves and act as businesspeople. While it is important to work, you should also bear in mind that improving the quality of your pool of customers requires constant 'background' and preparatory work. That is why time and its optimal management are crucial. Spending too much time doing just paid-for work—especially during periods of peaks—may distract you from the marketing and administrative activities, which are the basis and the conditio sine qua non of any independent business. How can customers find you if you do not dedicate time and efforts to marketing? Time management requires good organizational abilities and some practical common sense. Everybody can learn how to organize his/her work and day-life so as not to waste time, do his/her job better, and still have a social life. Lack of organization leads to chaos. First of all, you should prioritize and schedule your activities during the day. Prepare and update a to-do list such as phone calls, replying to e-mails, making appointments, etc. It is a good rule to start your workday by scrolling through this list of to-do activities. Start with those activities that require no more than a few minutes, including reading and replying to e-mails, first thing in the morning. Among the preparatory tasks you should carry out in order to simplify your working life, there is the organization of your e-mails, both incoming and outgoing. These days we get and send a large number of e-mails, so it is easy to let them accumulate. Unless you place them where they belong in a timely manner, they will eventually overwhelm you. You should organize them so as to be able to track back the relevant communication quickly, if needed, without wasting time. First of all, create separate folders for personal and work e-mails. Then, create sub-folders under the work folder, one for each customer, and a miscellaneous folder where you will save general e-mails. Despite what some people think about free e-mail accounts, Gmail works fine and it enables you to set many options, which help you keep your correspondence in order. Besides, if you have multiple e-mail accounts, you can re-direct them to your main Gmail account and keep all the e-mails in the same place and under control. When setting your e-mail preferences, do not forget to set the auto-responder, whose message can be customized, e.g. when you are on vacation or out of office for a short period. That way, your customers will always get a reply to their e-mails and know when you will be available again. The same process can be applied to work and invoice folders, and each of these can be further divided into more specific sub-folders. Finally, do not forget to zip and archive old jobs once done, and to back them up on a regular basis. In addition to organizing your time in reading and replying to your e-mails and archiving your jobs in a more efficient manner, you should also establish opening hours for your home office; working at home does not mean you should work 24/7. Your customers will understand that and, once they know what your rules are, they will usually accommodate you. Freelance translators work mainly on the Internet: there they get their e-mails, online dictionaries, resources, etc. so it is easy to get distracted while surfing. You should resist the temptation to 'have just a quick look at Facebook' while working. When you start working, try to limit the occasions of distraction by closing any Internet websites not relevant to your work searches, setting the answering machine on and not checking e-mails every five minutes! As already mentioned before, doing your paid-for work is not enough: you are your own boss, so you have to dedicate some time to marketing and invoicing. Indeed, marketing is the primary activity you should focus on, especially at the beginning of your career as a freelance. If you want to build a quality portfolio of customers and establish good and lasting working relationships, you have to be prepared to study some marketing strategies. Freelance translators should get used to thinking about themselves and act as businesspeople. Marketing activities are time-consuming and may also be boring. Still, they are necessary, and you should dedicate a few hours every week to looking for new customers, polishing your public profile, writing articles and press-releases, compiling specialized glossaries, keeping in touch with colleagues, reading any marketing literature you may deem useful, etc. Of course, your marketing strategies will vary depending on whether you target translation agencies or direct clients. The latter are much more difficult to approach and acquire as repeat customers, so it goes without saying that you will need to put more efforts and time in finding direct customers. On the other hand, it will be more rewarding in monetary terms than working with intermediaries. Cutting the middleman is of course the best solution to increase your income, but it also requires many hours spent at trade fairs, researching the targeted direct customers' activities, etc. One of the first steps you should take to acquire visibility on the Internet is to have a website, through which you will communicate any updates and news about yourself, your profession, and your activities. In particular, I am thinking of an interactive website that you can manage without any external aid by a webmaster: my two websites, for example, are built using Plone, an open-source platform. If you take a look at them at www.antotranslation.com and www.contesti.eu, you will notice that they are platforms, rather than traditional websites. This means that every time you have to add/change/remove anything on the website, you can do it yourself in seconds. Such a website is a powerful means to convey information and news to your potential customers, but also to your colleagues and readers. Of course, a website alone is no magic wand and is not sufficient to market your services, unless you update it constantly, adding new contents and that way improving its Google ranking. In addition to a web-site, it is very useful to network on portals and sites dedicated to translation and translators, build your professional profile and follow the threads in the Forums. That is a very good way of acquiring information and getting to know more about what happens in the translation world: your colleagues' opinions are valuable and enable you to keep linked to your professional environment. Working alone at home day after day may pose the risk of being isolated, so...stay connected! A page on Facebook is also useful, but you should pay extra attention when publishing your profile on the Internet. Remember that all the contents you post there will be seen by everybody and not only when you write it, but even years later. Should you post any inappropriate content or opinion, it will contribute to building the image potential customers will have of you. So be careful to protect your reputation, because as a freelance translator your public image as an individual is also the image of your business. This short article does not aim to give detailed marketing methods other that the few hints above. Its main purpose is to point out the relevance of organization and time management for freelancers. Remember that being a freelancer involves a huge responsibility, since if anything goes wrong, it is you the one to blame. But the good news is that you, as an individual, will also deserve any credit for the success of your business.

© Copyright Translation Journal, the Author, and Creative Commons 2011 URL: http://translationjournal.net/journal/55time.htm Last updated on: 12/20/2010 07:15:35

Another Accidental Translator.

by Denzel Dyer
Warning: do not regard this as instructions for becoming a translator.   grew up on a dry farm during the Depression, drought, and grasshopper plagues, all of which helped convince me that I was not going to be a farmer. But after some pre-school home learning (my mother had been a school teacher), a year in a one-room country school, then through the remaining grades in a small town school, with mostly very good teachers, I graduated from high school in 1946. Having become fascinated by chemistry, I entered a nearby small college as a chemistry major, and started taking chemistry courses. In the absence of counseling, I realized that a chemist really needed some knowledge of German, and took the two years' course then available. Several things happened in the 1947-48 school year. All the undergraduate chemistry laboratory assistants had graduated the previous spring, and I was picked as one of the replacements. That was also the year when Congress initiated a new draft, with the provision that members of active reserve units would not be subject to the draft. With quite a number of other students at the college, I enlisted in the local company of the Nebraska National Guard, which I mention here because that had consequences for translation a dozen years later. In sci-tech translation you must be well acquainted with science and technology in general, and knowledge of one or more specialties is nearly essential.. On to graduate school at the University of Nebraska, and research in biochemistry. Some of the other chemistry graduate students were encountering the need to know what German chemists had published, and it turned out that my two years of college German, while not at all adequate for translation, prompted one of the people to ask about those publications. In the beginning class of my undergraduate course I had met a pretty girl who was forced to take chemistry because she was going to be a nurse. She got some extra coaching, and she graduated from nursing school (and could support me) in 1952. I met her parents the day before the graduation ceremony, and we were married the day after. My chemistry coaching eventually paid off in the form of three sons and two granddaughters. Meanwhile, award of the doctorate required passing examinations in two foreign languages. German was not a serious problem, and the school had a one-semester course in French, aimed successfully at getting candidates past that exam. I finally got the degree in June, 1955, and went off to work for the Dow Chemical Company, the one that offered me a job. No actual translation at Dow, but a 1956 assignment to a problem for the people marketing Dow's phenolic germicides: why does soap make those germicides less active? It turned out that the answer had been published in Germany in 1943 and England in 1944, but bacteriologists and marketers did not read the physical chemistry journals, and especially not in German. In 1959 I found an aerospace job near Denver, doing research and development on long-term life support in space. That 1948 enlistment in the Nebraska National Guard resulted in assignment to an Army Reserve R&D unit in Denver. Most of the men in the unit were working in a study of avalanches, but I decided that a translation project would be warmer and drier, and did some translations for the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research. For some governmental reason, I was assigned papers on teeth and dentistry, and managed to turn out "translations" with two dictionaries and a rented portable typewriter. The less said about those the better. When that aerospace group was terminated, I followed the director to another aerospace company in Southern California. When that group was terminated. I went into business for myself--consulting, and a small laboratory specializing in optical microscopic testing. I realized that it would take a while to develop business--but that long?? My wife went back to work; and I happened on an advertisement for technical translators. I thought "I can do that!" and responded. Actually, I couldn't do it, but got paid while learning. Some readers may remember Scitran, operated by Mr. and Mrs. Peter Feitis in Santa Barbara, California. I did a lot of work for them, in fields ranging through anatomy, lasers, and military operations, with even a little chemistry. Scitran, a low bidder on government contracts, didn't pay a lot, but I wasn't worth much, and the process was very educational. Things were different then, with documents traveling by mail and UPS, passing through an Adler electric typewriter in between. Finances improved, partly through working with another laboratory, and partly because of the asbestos scare, with microscopy being the analytical method of choice. But I was still doing translations, though the price was higher by then. I bought my first computer and learned about the American Translators Association, CompuServe and its very helpful Foreign Language Education Forum, FLEFO. By late 1990, the required asbestos testing had been completed, and numerous competitors (the number in the state had increased ten-fold) were offering rush work for what I considered less than the cost of doing the work. I realized that I could work hard and lose money, or not work and not lose money. At that point I closed the lab business and became a real Translator. Work at home! Make money! No laboratory rent! No expensive equipment! I should have made that move years earlier. It helped considerably that I had several good clients by then. By this time I had managed to work almost entirely with chemical documents or with pharmaceutical documents that were heavily chemical. The original two dictionaries had expanded to three bookcases of references. Thanks to a high-school typing class and a lot of experience, I could type pretty well. Thanks to all the industrial work, I could translate much of the material about as fast as I could type--with an occasional long pause trying to find the meaning of a particularly obscure word or phrase, often with help through the ATA German Language Division (my special thanks to everyone there!). So after I finally got to be a real translator, things went quite smoothly. Not much problem with non-payers and slow payers, and never twice with the same one. Ted's Payment Practices and Laura's Translator Client Review helped significantly. And now? In September of 2010, I decided it was time to retire at not quite 81. Yes, Parkinson's Law is still valid. Words of wisdom for new translators? Unless you are an employee, you are in business for yourself and must maintain good relations with the city, county, state and federal fee and tax people. If you pay yourself a salary, you will have to deduct income tax payments. Remember that the tax people consider that money theirs at the moment you make the deduction, and are very narrow-minded about your holding it for a while. I had incorporated the laboratory business and continued the corporation for translating until 2009--not a good decision, considering corporate minimum tax and the minimal legal protection from a corporation. With politicians getting hungrier, taxes and fees will become worse problems, especially for those evil corporations. Marketing is essential, of course. It is not one of my strong points. In the aerospace companies, I had the distinction that no proposal I ever touched got us a contract. But numerous letters slowly paid off, and I was able to get enough good long-term clients that, except for responding to inquiries, I haven't done any marketing for years. Besides, successful marketing would have meant having to work harder. Actual translation wisdom? Not a lot, and all dealing strictly with sci-tech German into English. First, of course, when you are writing in English, you really must be good at English: spelling, grammar, and (probably the most difficult part) the current usage in the country and technical field in which you are working. (Do you remember when "condenser" became "capacitor" in electrical/electronic work, but stayed "condenser" in optics and chemistry?) How literal to be? That depends on the material and the client, but, except for patents and patent litigation, I favor translating ideas rather than words. As for patents, patent drafters have their own problems in distinguishing precisely between what is old and what is new (or, as they say in patentese, "novel") and patentable, and in specifying exactly what is covered. I find it necessary to be painfully literal in most patent work. Don't worry greatly about making a patent read well; most do not. Patents often have long sections in the description and claims that are, at least nearly, identical. That's nice if you get to count the words both times, but don't trust the writers to make those sections actually identical. I have seen them leave out one chemical name in a four-page list. Check! The computerized systems (I haven't used them) won't let you count the words in those sections, but should do some of the checking. Don't trust them too far. And definitely don't trust spell-checkers in technical text, or computer grammar checkers at all. Still thinking of sci-tech translation, you must be well acquainted with science and technology in general, and knowledge of one or more specialties is nearly essential. They each have their own substantial languages. but, for instance, much pharmaceutical and microbiological literature is largely chemistry. Don't let chemical nomenclature frighten you away. It is almost identical in German and English, with the similarity increasing in the newer and more complex names. It does require careful attention, not to p's and q's, but to i's and e's, c's and k's. Knowledge of the source language? Of course, but I got by with those two years of college German, limited reading knowledge (absolutely no literature or philosophy!) and essentially no spoken German. Fortunately for me, most people doing German sci-tech writing are trying to convey information clearly, and most of them succeed. For those who don't, gldlist and Google have been great helps.
© Copyright Translation Journal and the Author 2011 URL: http://translationjournal.net/journal/55prof.htm Last updated on: 12/20/2010 07:15:34

NUESTRAS FORTALEZAS:

• Catedráticos que a su vez son Traductores Jurados.
• Con aprendizaje de Inglés en Wessex Academy, Bournemouth, Inglaterra.
• Con formación académica en Pedagogía, Lingüística y Ciencias Jurídicas y Sociales.
•  Miembro de The USA National Association of Judiciary Interpreters and Translators –NAJIT-
• Miembro admitido por la Asociación Guatemalteca de Intérpretes y Traductores de Guatemala –AGIT- en 1996.
• 19 años de experiencia en traducción jurada en Guatemala.
• 31 años de experiencia docente. 
• Presidente de ternas examinadoras de Traductor Jurado nombrado por el Ministerio de Educación 2001-08.
• Miembro de la comisión ponente del anteproyecto de la nueva Ley del Traductor Jurado promovido por la Escuela de Ciencias Lingüísticas de la USAC en la cual ha laborado desde el 2006.

PENSUM DEL CURSO

•  Repaso general de Gramática y Redacción del Idioma Español.

•  Repaso general de Gramática y Redacción del Idioma Inglés.

•  Teoría de la Traducción (Lingüística, Translatología, Textología, Evaluación de calidad de la traducción.)

•  Traducción técnica, Terminología, Redacción Técnica, Tecnología de la Traducción.

•  Derecho aplicado a la Traducción.

• Laboratorios de traducción legal, financiera y técnica.